What New England Colony Has the Most Fashion Sense
England
Alternative Names
British, Britannic
Orientation
Identification. The name of the country and the term "English" derive from the Old English language word for one of the three Germanic peoples that invaded the British Isles in the 5th century C . E ., the Angles. "United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland" and "British" derive from a Roman term for the inhabitants' language of the British Isles, called "Brythonic" or p-Celtic.
Englishness is highly regionalized. The most important regional carve up is between the south and the due north. The s, importantly represented by the regions of the southeast, southwest, East Anglia, and the Midlands, now contains the economically most dynamic sectors of the country, including the City (the primary fiscal center of the United Kingdom) and the seat of the national government, both in London. The north, the cradle of industrialization and the site of traditional smokestack industries, includes Yorkshire, Lancashire, Northumberland, Cumbria, Durham, Merseyside, and Cheshire. Especially in the terminal decades of the twentieth century, the north has experienced deindustrialization, severe economic hardship, and cultural balkanization. England is also a culture of many smaller regionalisms, still centered on the erstwhile governmental unit of measurement of the county and the local villages and towns. Local products, such equally ale, and regional rituals and art forms, such as Morris dancing and folk music, many of which date back to the preindustrial era, allow people to shape their attachments to their communities and the nation. Merged with the n–southward split up and regionalism are notions of working form, heart class, and upper class also every bit rich versus poor.
England'south part as a destination for migration as well has influenced conceptions of Englishness. Historically, the most prominent immigrant group has been the Irish, who came in two major waves in the modern era: 1847 and 1848 after the white potato famine, and during and subsequently Globe War 2. Scots were present in England by the 1700s and settled in England in large numbers during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, often for economic reasons. Welsh in-migration came to prominence when deindustrialization began in Wales in the 1920s. This inmigration has brought the so-chosen Celtic fringe into English culture in a host of ways. At that place has also been the bear upon of Jewish, Flemish, Dutch, French Huguenot, High german, Italian, Smoothen, Turkish, Cypriot, and Chinese cultures since the twelfth century. The loss of Britain'southward colonies has brought Afro-Caribbeans, Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, Indians, and migrants from northwestern and eastern Africa in significant numbers. Judgments of whether England's newcomers experience themselves to be "English language" vary by group and even past private.
Location and Geography. England covers fifty,357 square miles (130,423 foursquare kilometers) of the main island of the British Isles and lies off the northwestern coast of Europe, separated from the mainland past the English Aqueduct. The Gulf Stream makes the climate balmy and rainy. The country is as well divided into a highland zone and a lowland zone along a line from the rima oris of the River Exe in the southwest to the mouth of the River Tees in the northeast. The highland zone's soil is poor and rocky, mainly suitable for raising livestock, but in the lowlands the land is flatter, the soil is fertile, and there are many navigable rivers. Equally a consequence of its favorable topography, the lowland region has always had the bulk of the population, supported well-nigh agriculture and trade, and had the largest cities including the capital, London. The highland zone did not develop rapidly until the nineteenth century, when its coal and iron deposits allowed information technology to surge to prominence in the industrial revolution;
England
its communities struggle in England'due south postindustrial era.
Demography. The population was 49.5 million in 1998. The estimated nonwhite proportion of the population for that year was 7.3 percent, with the officially designated ethnic groups being blackness Caribbean area, black African, blackness other, Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Chinese.
Celtic in-migrations continues to exist a major influence. These migrations are often urban in focus and tend to cluster in item districts similar London and Merseyside. The second of import shift in demography from an ethnic standpoint is related to the finish of the British Empire. Beginning in the 1950s, peoples from the Indian subcontinent and the Caribbean began to immigrate to England, taking advantage of the 1948 British Nationality Act, which established that all Republic citizens enjoyed British citizenship. About of these immigrants have settled in London, the West Midlands, Yorkshire and Merseyside. Between 1984 and 1996, the number of nonwhites in England, Scotland, and Wales rose from 2.3 million to 3.39 million (the bulk of whom lived in England) for a total increase of 47 percent. In that same menses Bully U.k. grew by only 5.eight percent and England by fifty-fifty less. European, Mediterranean, and Eastward Asian immigrants have been part of the cultural mural since the Heart Ages, when the Jewish customs came to prominence and Flemish clothworkers began arriving. Immigrants to England in detail have been drawn there by the creation of a Common Market place in Western Europe and the ending of restrictions on the move of eastern Europeans.
Linguistic Amalgamation. The primary language since the sixteenth century has been some version of English. English, withal, is an amalgam of languages brought to the British Isles by invasions that began before written history. The Celts made Gaelic the dominant linguistic communication until the Romans invaded in 55 and 54 B.C.E. , and introduced Latin and Greek, but it was the invasion of England past Germanic tribes in the fifth century (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) that laid the footing for English. The arrival of Christianity in 597 allowed English language to interact with Latin as well as with Greek, Hebrew, and languages as distant as Chinese. Viking invasions a few centuries later brought Scandinavian languages to the British Isles, while the Norman invasion in 1066 introduced French. Gradually, all levels of society adopted English language, which had largely supplanted Latin and French in the second half of the fifteenth century.
Modern English comes from the East Midland dialect of Middle English. This carve up betwixt the Due east Midland dialect and all others emerged between the fourteenth and nineteenth centuries when those speaking with a "proper" or "posh" accent separated themselves from those speaking "Cockney" or working-course English. This division is signified past the distinction between "received pronunciation" (r.p.), Standard English, or BBC English language and regional or local dialects of English language. This linguistic divide has always corresponded with social rank. The elite generally spoke with an r.p. emphasis (also known as the Queen'due south or Rex's English), and other residents spoke a not-standard, locally mediated English. In recent decades the connection between class and emphasis has begun to loosen.
Except in sure urban communities, bilingualism and multilingualism continue to play a minimal role in England. As of 1980 at to the lowest degree twelve languages other than English language had more than 100,000 speakers in Britain, including Punjabi, Urdu, Caribbean patois, Hindi, and Cantonese, which are among England's more influential 2d languages. In the terminal decade, the many varieties of spoken English have been thriving. Pop civilization, especially music, radio, and television, has brought English creoles and patois; Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi English; and Celtic versions of English into the lives of the country'southward inhabitants. Thus, while Standard English nevertheless holds sway, it is no longer an unquestioned standard.
Symbolism. From a political standpoint, the monarchy, Parliament, and the English language (or British) constitution are central symbols with both physical and ritual manifestations. As powerful are the rituals surrounding Parliament'due south routine. The monarchy expresses itself physically through the palaces and other residences of the imperial family unit. Ritually, the monarchy permeates national life. From the social functions of the elite, which many people follow in the popular press, to the promotion of public causes, to royal weddings, the monarchy'due south representatives lend an almost sacral quality to public life.
Images that capture England's by have become a very important element in how people root themselves in a society that is increasingly mobile and in which the past has become a commodity. Idealizations of village and town life from bygone days are mutual in the speeches of politicians. Other idealizations of the past are every bit popular, from the preserved industrial landscapes of the Midlands and the n, to nature walks that refer to the ancient peoples who inhabited the area long before the English arrived, to the appearance of the "English" countryside.
In recent years, pop culture has provided means for England's immigrants to claim Englishness publicly. Before Globe War II the majority population insisted that newcomers assimilate and migrants were unable to lay claims to Englishness. More than integrated national sports, especially soccer, and sports heroes represent the new ethnic landscape and provide symbols the young and the poor tin claim. Similarly, movies, pop music, and plays accept given less powerful groups ways of challenge Englishness. Pop festivals such as the Notting Colina Funfair, which is Europe's largest commemoration of black identity, are as well part of the mix. The New Democracy population as well has produced widely read literary works.
Participants in the International Worm Mannerly Festival, a charity event held in Devon, England.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. The emergence of the nation took place between 1200 and 1850. The first period when a quasi-national feeling was able to unify the people was the Hundred Years' State of war with French republic in the late Middle Ages (1337–1453). Although a dynastic conflict between successive English language and French monarchs, this war became a cause in which Anglo-Saxon and Norman civilisation merged into a recognizably English civilization.
In the sixteenth century, nationalism took on another component: anti-Catholicism. Henry VIII created the Church building of England past tapping into popular sentiment against the Pope's interference in national affairs. Elizabeth I, his daughter, created a sense of national unity through the conflicts she orchestrated with Catholic Espana. Another manifestation of anti-Cosmic sentiment was the Battle of the Boyne in 1689, where William Three routed Catholic opposition in Ireland. William after affirmed Catholicism as being contrary to English and Irish constabulary. Offset with Scotland and Ireland in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and standing with competitions with the Spanish, the Dutch, and the French between 1550 and 1816, the English established a sense of expansionary patriotism. The concluding stride in creating a national sentiment was taken in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when the eye classes divers Englishness as a positive morality to which everyone could subscribe.
National Identity. English cultural roots prevarication in a merging of Anglo-Saxon, Danish, and Norman French civilisation that has existed as a synthesis since the late Eye Ages. A procedure of negotiation was at the heart of this cultural creation.
Ethnic Relations. After stripping them of their assets, Edward I expelled the Jewish community in 1290, and Jews did not receive total rights and recognition until the twentieth century. The earliest guest workers, Flemish clothworkers, frequently constitute their contributions resented by "native" labor. German language, French, and Low Countries Protestant refugees in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries were confronted with ethnic prejudices. The Irish every bit Celts and Catholics and the Welsh and Scots equally Celts also take faced resentment, especially in eras dominated by English nationalism and British imperialism.
In the British Isles and away, the English record in colonized areas is no better than that of other European colonizing cultures. Beginning in the 1960s with the Immigration Acts and reaching a low bespeak with the 1981 British Nationality Act, laws have been passed to restrict the rights of foreigners to enter the land and obtain citizenship and benefits. The support of Margaret Thatcher's government for free-market commercialism contributed to the decline of the areas where nigh ethnic minorities lived, sparking violent protests in the 1980s, such equally London's Brixton riots in 1981. Antiracism legislation and the improving economic system accept lessened public and official attending to the nonwhite population. Even so, economical migrants and political refugees, chiefly from East asia, eastern Europe, and Africa, accept taken the identify of the non-white populace as objects of public business concern.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Utilise of Space
England'due south urbanism and notions of landscape and countryside are closely tied to the motility of people and economical sectors from major metropolitan areas into new towns, extensions of older towns, smaller towns, villages, and remote rural areas. Cities are idea of as places of disuse and degeneration by many people. The cardinal principle in definitions of urban communities is their direction and containment; this has been washed by designating rings of nondevelopment (green belts) around major cities and urban areas. The emphasis on areas of nondevelopment also has influenced planning within cities and towns, with space existence created for individual and public gardens, parks, athletic fields, and other so-called greenfield sites. There has too been an accent on arranging cities and towns in more than livable units, with more thought to the placement of piece of work sites, public amenities, shopping areas, and dwellings and more of a focus on how streets cater to public and private uses.
Villages and small towns that were fairly local or regional have become bedchamber communities for large cities such as London or parts of larger regional urban networks. Sometimes they retain their original graphic symbol, simply more than often flush newcomers take changed these localities. Thus, while those in suburban, village, and modest-town areas trumpet the rural nature of their lives, they have altered the rural landscape. Outside the towns and villages, two forces boss the countryside: highly commercialized agriculture and preservation. Agribusiness has played a role in defining the countryside by destroying 95 percent of the nation'south wetlands. Countering the tendency toward developing the countryside to accommodate more housing are the preservationists, who want to expand parks, preserve a traditional land way of life, and keep urban dwellers out of these areas. Left out of towns, cities, villages, and rolling hills are those with no money and no political voice. Those most excluded from current visions and proposals are the poor and the urban-domicile ethnic minority groups.
Many different types of Englishness compete in towns, cities, villages, and the countryside. Architecturally, little is left from the Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Roman periods, although Roman town planning, roads, and walls are however evident and Anglo-Saxon churches and Celtic monuments are yet standing. The Middle Ages have left Gothic and Romanesque architecture while the Tudor and Stuart periods of England's history accept besides left their contributions, notably not just in buildings for the aristocracy and the land but also for the middling sort. The eighteenth century saw Georgian and neo-Gothic compages, which continued into the nineteenth century when neo-Classical styles arose. The twentieth century has seen the rise of suburban building styles and Modernism and reactions confronting both in the form of conservation, community architecture, and a tendency to revive quondam styles such as neo-Classicism.
Regime buildings serve a range of symbolic purposes. Monuments more ofttimes symbolize detail historical figures or events. The purposes of public spaces likewise vary. The pews in a typical church promote an orderly separation between congregants while emphasizing togetherness as a congregation. Piccadilly Circus and many museums encourage people to mingle. Tea rooms, coffee shops, public houses, and nightclubs provide divide seating but promote a social atmosphere. People in England prefer to live in detached, suburban dwellings, ideally with a garden. First congenital in big numbers in the 1920s, many suburban houses were congenital in twos with a garden in front and rear. Another detached style was the single-story bungalow, which also became popular in the 1920s. Although in the postal service-war era it became common to build large, boxy modernist apartment blocks, especially for public housing, suburban building connected in additional new towns, some of which used the compatible, modernist styles. Since the 1980s more than traditional designs for housing have been popular and both detached and not-discrete housing have been constructed to evoke one of England's past eras. In individual dwelling spaces, the English tend to fill up much of the bachelor space.
Nutrient and Economy
Food in Daily Life. England is known for its bland cuisine. Traditional middle-class notions of diet put
Blossoming croplands in Kent.
meats at the heart of the primary meal, which usually was eaten at midday. Forth with this main class, at that place might be a dish such as a meat goulash, and fish too was consumed. Heavy sauces, gravies, soups and stews or puddings (savory and sweet), and pasties and pies too were eaten. Vegetables included potatoes and carrots, turnips and cabbage, and salad vegetables. Fruit was as well part of the nutrition, though in minor proportions. Lighter meals included variations of the sandwich. Breakfast foods ranged from hot cereals to tea, toast, and marmalade, to steak, eggs, and kidneys. These foods were not available to most people earlier World War Two. The rural poor, for instance, ate a diet based on cheese and bread, with bacon eaten a few times a week, supplemented by fresh milk if available, cabbage, and vegetables if a garden was kept. All the classes drank tea; beer was boozer by the working classes and other alcoholic beverages were drunk by the heart and upper classes.
Since 1950, the English have eaten less cherry meat, more poultry, and virtually the same amount of fish. The consumption of fats is down, and that of alternatives such equally margarine is up. Fresh fruits are in favor, while vegetables are not, and the focus is on salad vegetables. The main repast is now eaten in the evening and is probable to consist of frozen or fix-fabricated food. In addition to eating out in pubs, inns, and restaurants, people eat fast food. There has been a dramatic increase in the multifariousness of foreign cuisine, ranging from Chinese and Indian to French and Italian.
At that place are few nutrient-related taboos. People avoid some foods for so-called hygienic reasons, such as onions and leeks, which can cause bad breath. There are also foods that are considered uncivilized. Traditionally, the English have never eaten dogs, horses, other carnivores, or insects. Increasingly, eating meat is looked on as uncivilized. As function of the shift away from meat toward fruit, vegetables, and fish, people accept become more distanced from the production of the meat they eat and less willing to eat as wide a variety of meats.
Food Community at Formalism Occasions. Autonomously from cakes on birthdays, few special foods are eaten at major secular ceremonies, although such ceremonies involve toasting and drinking booze. In religious ceremonies, booze, unremarkably wine, is common at most celebrations of the Eucharist in Christian churches and likewise is used at Jewish ceremonies. On Shrove Tuesday, which is both a secular and a religious occasion, many people consume pancakes.
Basic Economic system. The economy is adult and highly specialized, and very few inhabitants produce nutrient and other necessities for themselves. In 1998, approximately 13 per centum of England's workforce was self-employed, many working in agriculture, line-fishing, and construction. This group and the few among the economically inactive (21 percent in 1998) who accept opted out of the market economy completely are the only people in England who may produce goods for themselves. Given that the bulk of both groups are part of the regular economy, the number of people who are completely self-sufficient is small, although at times they are politically and culturally prominent. A rough sense of England's dependence on the world tin be gained by looking at trade figures equally a proportion of Gross domestic product. In 1997 England's exports amounted to about 29 percentage of Gross domestic product, every bit did imports.
Land Tenure and Holding. The most common form of land tenure is the owner-occupied house, with personal ownership in 1998 at 68 percent and the remainder of the inhabitants renting regime-owned rent-controlled or private dwellings. Well-nigh dwellings are in urban areas, which occupied nearly 12 percent of the total land area in 1999. In that same year, 71 percentage of England's land was devoted to agriculture: 24 pct was rented and the remaining 47 percent was owned by resident farmers or farming enterprises. Legal rights to property have their origin in the flow 1500–1800, when landholders enclosed country and claimed exclusive ownership of information technology. Their actions extinguished many customary use rights to land and established private claims to rights-of-mode. In addition to this partition between individual and common land, many forms of public and semipublic state accept developed. Roads, infrastructure, and official buildings are frequently public. As well subject to public control are the national parks and nature reserves. Areas of Outstanding Natural Dazzler are often in individual hands but are under public supervision of the Countryside Agency. Public rights-of-style and common lands are often endemic past individuals, merely those owners may exist obligated to ensure public admission. The Section of the Surroundings, Ship, and the Regions oversees country use, working with local authorities, an organisation in place since the 1947 Town and Country Planning Human activity.
Commercial Activities. In addition to manufacturing, the major sectors of the economy are financial services, wholesale and retail trade, communication technology, and education and social services.
Major Industries. The major areas of industrial output are textiles; food, beverages, and tobacco; paper, newspaper products, wood products; chemicals; metals and fabricated metal items; electrical and optical equipment; and transport equipment and other machinery.
Division of Labor. People with more experience still tend to concord positions with greater responsibility and rewards, but this state of affairs has been changing since the 1970s. Increasingly, older workers are losing jobs considering of concern strategies to proceed workforces small. This trend has hit older working class men particularly hard considering the sectors in which they work are rapidly being shifted out of the economy. Ethnic prejudice, ageism, and sexism still foreclose many people from advancing. Specialization, educational attainment, and condition correspond fairly well, with managerial and professional groups beingness at the pinnacle of society, followed by white-collar workers and then skilled blue-neckband workers and semi-skilled and unskilled manual laborers.
Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. Course is the primary way in which people approach social stratification. The upper class (the landed gentry, the titled nobility, and members of the purple family) has roughly the same social position information technology has had since the nineteenth century, when the middle classes began to compete successfully with the landed interests for influence. Even so, the upper course lost official political influence (and credibility) in the twentieth century. The major alter in England's social identity structure has been the shrinking number of workers in manufacturing and the increasing number of people who work in service industries. White-neckband and other service workers have replaced blue-collar workers as England's economic backbone. Consequently, the eye class has increased in size and wealth, and home ownership has increased, while matrimony membership has declined dramatically, along with the size of the traditional industrial working class.
Most workers await unemployment at some indicate in their careers, especially the unskilled and uneducated. In 1983, only v pct of non-manual workers were unemployed. In dissimilarity, skilled manual workers experienced 12 percentage and semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers 23 percent unemployment, and manual workers combined accounted for 84 percent of the unemployed.
England is becoming a order of the included and the excluded. There has been a sharp ascent in long-term unemployment. The nature of work in a fluid economy does not support long-term employment
A busy street in Scarborough, York. English language architecture is a unique blend of old and new.
for low-skilled and moderately skilled workers, and this is reflected in the ascension in part-time (24.7 percent of the 1999 workforce), and multiple-job workers. Homelessness has get a fact of English life, with 102,410 families in England accepted as homeless in 1997 alone.
The richest class has increased its share of the national income and national assets. In 1995, the wealthiest 10 pct of the population owned half the assets controlled by households. In 1997 the income of the top 20 percent of households was four times that of the bottom 20 percent. Meanwhile, those earning less than half of the median doubled betwixt 1979 and 1998, reaching 10 per centum.
Ethnic minorities have not fared well in the new economic environment. For all minority men, unemployment was 17 percent in the period 1986–1988, for example, compared with x percent for whites. 10 years on, in the period 1997–1998, unemployment rates of Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, and blacks were more than three times those for whites. Indians, on the other manus, have faired better, currently occupying a central position in the heart course as entrepreneurs and in the professions, enjoying chances of employment more comparable to whites.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Many of the traditional symbols of social deviation have undergone modify. Clothing and other consumer goods historically were indicators of form, but are now more ambiguous. Most consumer goods are widely available, and the clothing and manner industries recycle styles so quickly that rank and clothing do not e'er correspond. Education, which used to be a clear way to divide people into classes, has also lost some of its defining power. Private primary and secondary schools increased their share of school age children through 1990, and higher education has expanded the number of places available to those who want postsecondary training; by the mid 1990s more than thirty percent of students age eighteen were attention a university. Oxford and Cambridge have been accepting students from an increasingly wide socioeconomic spectrum, and students now accept many more than universities to choose from. Accent also has become a less reliable course signifier.
Political Life
Government. Unlike Scotland and Wales, England does not accept a carve up parliament or departments to stand for and manage it. Contact with the central government is increasingly accomplished through nine Government Offices for the Regions. Day-to-day life in the customs is governed by local authorities such every bit commune and parish councils.
Leadership and Political Officials. Political parties and institutions favor those judged to be respectable and, in senior positions, those with political experience. Thus, in the Conservative Political party, only members of Parliament (MPs) can elect political party leaders. It is even so common for politicians and judges to have an elite pedagogy and a privileged groundwork. Local politics is a mixed bag, with some local authorities and boondocks and village councils politically polarized and others less so, although the larger the community the more likely it is to be dominated past the Labour Party. In full general, those who participate in local politics and local organizations such as arts councils knew someone in government earlier condign involved.
England has no national parties that affiliate specifically with the national culture. The main parties are the Labour Party (at present often called New Labour), the Conservative Political party (Tories), and the Liberal Democrats.
Admission to political leaders is accomplished most effectively through voluntary sector interest groups. These organizations work with local authorities authorities, local agencies such as the police, individual MPs, and key government ministries and may acquire an official role.
Social Bug and Social Control. For purposes of policing and criminal justice, England and Wales are treated as 1 unit of measurement. Policing is handled by forty-one locally organized law forces in addition to the Metropolitan Police Service and the Urban center of London police force. Most police officers carry a nightstick, with only designated officers carrying sidearms. Persons suspected of committing a crime may exist stopped and searched. More all-encompassing searching is possible with authorisation from a senior officer. For about crimes the police require judicial authority to brand arrests, just for "arrestable" offences such as murder, authority is unnecessary. The maximum period of detention without a charge beingness leveled is ninety-6 hours. The Police Complaints Dominance handles cases of police brutality. The national policing bodies are the National Crime Squad and the National Criminal Intelligence Service. The Home Secretary of the United Kingdom has overall responsibility for policing in England too as for the prison service, the probation service, and the criminal law.
Criminal law is a combination of statute constabulary made by Parliament and mutual law (case law). Founded in 1985, the Crown Prosecution Service prosecutes criminals arrested by the police. The court system is adversarial, and the accused is defended by a lawyer (a solicitor or barrister) who attempts to disprove the case presented by the Crown Prosecution Service. Cases that go to Crown Court involve a trial past a jury of the accused person'south peers with guidance from the presiding judge. In all other cases non on entreatment, the accused is tried in magistrate court by a judge who decides the case with the help of a police clerk. The accused or the Crown may entreatment a judgment to a college court, with the highest court being the Firm of Lords. Except for treason and a few other offenses, the highest penalty is a custodial judgement.
Since the 1980s, ideas about the function of the criminal justice system have been irresolute, largely as a result of perceived and real increases in violent and property crimes. Local communities with their informal mechanisms for social command are considered an of import part of criminal justice. Neighborhood watch schemes have get popular, and victim-offender arbitration and reparation, community mediation, and neighborhood mediation have emerged. Police cautioning, in which juvenile offenders and their parents or guardians are informed of the seriousness of their offenses, has get popular. Parole boards administrate the penalisation of offenders in the community, and the police and other official agencies have formed partnerships with local communities and voluntary organizations. Some people are critical of the trend toward integrating breezy social control into the official criminal justice appliance. They argue that such social control may result in a culture divided into communities suspicious of outsiders. Others have noted that vigilantism, which plays a relatively small role in the culture (exceptions are street gangs, less organized groupings of males termed "the lads," and soccer hooligans), may accept root.
Military Action. Military activity is administered through the armed services of the United Kingdom, which are directed by the United kingdom Ministry of Defense.
Social Welfare and Alter Programs
Social welfare and alter programs are directed toward people who cannot care for themselves (the elderly, children and youth, and the disabled), those in poverty, and those experiencing discrimination. Local government social services authorities provide for children and youth, the elderly, and the disabled, and at that place are advisory and regulatory bodies such as the National Inability Council and the Mental Health Act Committee. For the elderly, the disabled, and those with learning disabilities, major services include supervised residential and mean solar day care, help for those bars to the abode, support services for family members caring for those individuals, and counseling. Increasingly, government policy has aimed services for the elderly, the disabled, and persons with learning disabilities at helping those people live at domicile and in the community. The mentally ill are treated locally, though since there are fewer places for the mentally ill in large hospitals, this has meant farming out patients to smaller hospitals and private and charity-supported facilities. Local authorities have the responsibleness for child welfare, and provide assistance to families such as advice, guidance, counseling, and day care. They also protect abused children and care for children without parents.
The poor and the unemployed receive support from the Department of Social Security (DSS). The major beneficiaries are the unemployed, families in need, those with short-term or long-term inability, widows, and elderly retirees. Since the early 1980s, more weather condition have been placed on the receipt of DSS benefits, with the exception of the elderly and those unable to work. The unemployed,
A row of houses in Shaftesbury, Dorset. Many small villages have made an endeavour to preserve classic English compages.
for instance, must demonstrate they are looking for work to receive benefits.
Social change programs for indigenous minorities and women are in their infancy. There is a Race Equality Unit in the key authorities, and the 1976 Race Relations Act set the Commission for Racial Equality that oversees over one hundred racial equality councils. These changes have not diminished ethnic inequality and tensions, although U.k. has a government minister for women, a Women's Unit of measurement, and an Equal Opportunity Commission (EOC) likewise as an umbrella group known every bit the Women'south National Commission.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
The Clemency Committee for England and Wales registered 188,000 charities in 1998. Across the United Kingdom, charities employed 485,000 people and supervised 3 million volunteers in 1998. With the move toward privatization in the 1980s, charities became more of import, just social and economic dislocation accept made information technology hard for them to maintain the social condom net. Nongovernmental organizations piece of work with children and youth; marginalized or disadvantaged groups such as the poor, the elderly, the disabled, and those suffering from inequality; environmental conservationists; the scientific discipline and technology sector; the arts; and the humanities.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Gender roles assign homemaking, other domestic activities, and well-nigh unpaid labor to women. A man'southward sense of cocky is defined chiefly in terms of the paid piece of work he can obtain. The impact of these constructions of gender is now much different than before, but is still felt in English club.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Although there is no equal rights amendment, in recent decades there has been a more noticeable commitment to equality of opportunity for men and women through bodies such equally the Equal Opportunity Commission and laws such equally the Ballgame Act of 1967 and the 1969 Divorce Act. The rate of women'south (peculiarly married women's) participation in the workforce increased in the belatedly twentieth century, equally did the nature of that participation. In 1971, only 57 percent of women of working age were economically agile, but in 1998 that figure was 72 percent, whereas men's participation declined from 91 percent to 84 percent. Despite their importance in the workforce, women earn only 80 per centum of what men practice. Women accept been bars to lower-status work, are more likely to work function-time, and are under-represented in aristocracy jobs. However, some women take obtained high-condition, formerly male-dominated work, and the condition of female-dominated piece of work has risen. Women's increasing participation in political life and their progress in religious roles in society—the rise of women MPs in the 1990s and the Church of England'south agreement to ordain women priests in 1994—may be an indication of this.
Women have probably made the least progress in the social sphere. They were the victims in 70 percent of cases of domestic violence in 1998, and women still perform near unpaid piece of work, such as running households and raising children. Gender roles amidst particular subgroups, however, diverge from this picture. Some Muslim and Jewish women are more involved in the domestic sphere, and Afro-Caribbean area customs women are more than probable to be employed and have a higher status than Afro-Caribbean men.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship
Marriage. Among many members of the S Asian and Jewish communities, arranged marriages every bit a ways of cementing family alliances are the norm. Most inhabitants, withal, decide independently whom to ally, often choosing to cohabit with the partner before marriage. Social position, social aspirations, and informal social command drive the choice of a union partner. Thus, marriages across course lines are not common, especially among unskilled workers and the professional person and managerial classes. Marriages across ethnic lines likewise are non mutual. As a reason for matrimony, economic security is prominent, but so is the desire for sexual and social companionship. In 1997, virtually half the population over historic period sixteen was married. While marriage between a man and a woman remains the principal model for long-term relationships, it is not the only one. Same-sex unions and then-chosen blended families are increasingly common, and experimentation with forms of quasi-polygamy has taken identify.
Domestic Unit. The bones domestic unit is a household headed past a married couple—a model that deemed for 59 per centum of the households in 1998. Close to 73 percent of inhabitants live in a family unit headed by a couple (though not necessarily a married couple). It is uncommon for couples to live with the kin of either partner. Current gender roles dictate that men are the main breadwinners and women are responsible for household management. Who actually controls the household on a daily ground, however, varies by household. Single-parent, usually female-headed households are on the rise, bookkeeping for ix percent of all households in 1998. The extended family is a visible and of import social establishment in the Due south Asian, Asian, Afro-Caribbean area, and Jewish communities and all the same plays a function in the majority population. People living lone represented 28 percent of households in 1998.
Inheritance. Children rarely depend on inherited wealth to get independent and ordinarily inherit movable holding rather than real estate. When real estate is involved, it often consists of a domicile and the attached country, non agricultural land. Most people follow the principle of equal segmentation of inherited wealth among offspring, with some favoritism toward biological offspring in blended families.
Advertisements and a sign for the Undercover in London's busy Piccadilly Circus.
Kin Groups. People envision themselves as function of a gear up of interconnected families, the size of which varies with marital status and family traditions. Most people include three to four generations of people in their kin group. Those who are married count the aforementioned number of generations of the spouse'due south family every bit function of their family. Kin groups practise not have prominent status in society formally or informally. Notions of kinship involve a network of individuals who enter into kin relationships. The individual is not subsumed by the kin structure.
Socialization
Infant Care. Good mothering entails stimulating an babe through play and other activities. Many other aspects of infant care are class-specific. For example, middle-form mothers are likely to chest feed babies and wean them early on, while working-form mothers tend to use canteen feeding and wean infants later. Middle-grade infants are more than likely to slumber in a split room in a crib than are their working-class peers. Working-course infants also are more probable to receive concrete chastisement for crying. Working-class fathers are not probable to participate in the upbringing of infant children considering of the difficulty of obtaining time off.
Child Rearing and Education. A proficient child is ofttimes termed well adapted, equally opposed to children who are shy, withdrawn, overly aggressive, or hyperactive. Typically, people see children's behavior as the issue of interactions with those around them, with the parents existence the principal influence. Some children are viewed as having health problems that touch behavior, requiring medical intervention. In that location are ii major areas of emphasis in child-rearing practices and beliefs. Commencement, adults, peculiarly parents, need to teach children and immature adults how to behave past setting limits to what they can and cannot exercise, educational activity them how to solve conflicts and bargain with others, and modeling good behavior. Second, adults should stimulate children to learn and exist curious and artistic to promote the growth of their mental capacities. Children are supposed to be well behaved but capable of interacting with their peers without shyness and should be curious and inquisitive as learners. Models for learning, education, and parenting involve intense interaction between teacher and learner and parent and child. Major secular initiation ceremonies for children and young adults revolve effectually the educational process and clubs. School graduation ceremonies are a master rite of passage for virtually children and young adults. Hazing is used to initiate junior members of clubs, schools, and street gangs. There are three levels of schooling below the university level: preschool, primary school, and secondary school. Depending on the kinds of knowledge tested at the secondary levels, schools emphasize practical knowledge and problem solving as much as the mastery of a body of knowledge.
Higher Didactics. Regime policy since the belatedly 1950s has been aimed at expanding the opportunities for students to benefit from postsecondary education to create a more skilled workforce and increase social mobility. In the 1990s, more than 30 percent of all 18-year-olds were attending a university (up from under five percentage in 1960), although the contempo introduction of student fees may cause some to discontinue their education.
Etiquette
Etiquette is changing, but norms for appropriate beliefs articulated by the elite and the heart class are still an important normative forcefulness. Greetings vary by the class or social position of the person with whom one is dealing. Those with titles of dignity, honorific titles, academic titles, and other professional titles prefer to be addressed by those titles, but similar people to avoid calling too much attention to a person's position. Unless invited to practice so, one does not call people by their nicknames. Postural norms are akin to those in other Western cultures; people lean forward to show interest and cross their legs when relaxed, and smiles and nods encourage conversation. The English wait less physical expression and physical contact than do many other societies: handshakes should not exist besides house, social kissing is minimal, loud talking and backslapping are considered inappropriate, staring is impolite, and non waiting one'southward plow in line is a serious social blunder.
In conversation the English are known for understatement both in sense of humor and in other forms of expression. On social occasions, pocket-size talk on neutral topics is appropriate and modest gifts are given. People reciprocate in paying for food and drink in social exchanges, by ordering drinks by rounds, for case. In public houses (bars), appropriate etiquette includes not gesturing for service. In restaurants it is important to go along one's palms toward the waiter, and tips are in the range of 10 to 15 percentage. Standard table manners include belongings the fork in the left hand and the pocketknife in the right mitt, tipping 1's soup basin away when finishing, and not leaning one'due south elbows on the tabular array. Deviations from these norms occur in ethnic subcultures and among the working class. These groups commonly develop their own version of etiquette, appropriating some rules from the majority standard while rejecting others.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. In 1998, approximately 10 percent of the population claimed to be atheists and fifteen percent said they were agnostics, while 20 percent said they believed in God. In 1991, well-nigh 25 percent of inhabitants claimed to believe in astrology and proficient luck charms, and 42 percent believed in fortune-telling and religion healing. The major religious traditions are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Buddhism. In recent decades, so-called pagan or cult religions have included Wicca, shamanism, heathenism, druidry, goddess religion, the Unification Church, and Transcendental Meditation.
Religious Practitioners. Christian leaders derive power and authority from their control and impunity of sacraments. Jewish rabbis and Islamic imams derive their authority from their mastery of a specific set of religious legal texts and the application of those texts to everyday life. Hinduism relies on a wide variety of texts, and traditionally its master leaders gain authority from their caste position equally well as from their adherence to specific ascetic rules and, especially in the case of gurus, their perceived connectedness to the divine. Sikhism is a monotheistic religion with a single set of texts, and ideally Sikhs acquaintance themselves with a guru who helps believers achieve spirituality. In the most popular form of Buddhism (Mahayana), monks and teachers hold spiritual say-so by virtue of their ascetic way of life and mastery of certain texts. In the diverse forms of Buddhism, monks and teachers hold spiritual authority by virtue of their ascetic way of life, their mastery of sure texts, and their leadership of worship ceremonies. Modernistic paganism ofttimes envisions its priests every bit deriving their power through a unique connexion to the hidden forces in nature. Leaders of other movements rely on charisma or the attractiveness of the skills they teach.
Rituals and Holy Places. Christians celebrate an annual cycle of rituals that vary past denomination. Most celebrate Christmas and Easter and nourish services in a church on Sunday. Judaism has particular days of celebration, such as Passover, and weekly services on Saturdays in a synagogue. Islam has special celebrations (the month of Ramadan) and weekly attendance at worship services in a mosque
The House of Parliament and Large Ben are two of London's most famous landmarks.
on Fridays. In Hinduism worship is a daily activeness, often taking identify at the household shrine but likewise at the local temple. There are festivals and feasts to honor individual deities (Ram Navami) and detail occasions in the year (due east.g. Divali); some are yearly, others weekly and fortnightly. For Sikhs, regular worship at the temple is of import, only there are no days that are particularly holy; Sikhs worship on Dominicus. For Buddhists, worship is done both at domicile and at religious centers and occurs on a weekly basis; the nascency of the Buddha is an important occasion that is celebrated. Alternative religions vary in where they worship, how often, and on what days.
Death and the Afterlife. In the early 1990s, near 25 per centum of the population believed in life after death, although in that location is a broad range of practices around death. For a majority of the population, ideas about the afterlife are based on typical Victorian notions that are reinforced on television and in moving picture: a place where life is better and those who have lived a skilful life are rewarded. For most people, funerals have become much cleaner, with the deceased meticulously prepared and cleaned earlier burial. Cemeteries are kept pristine and immaculate. Others, even so, feel that the dead are very much amid the living in photographs, videos, and other visual mementos. People used to remember the dead in a yearly wheel of religious days, but with the geographic spread of families, family occasions take become the occasions to retrieve them. There are organizations that promote awareness of how to die, from living wills to hospice care to palliative measures and euthanasia.
Medicine and Health Care
Since 1946, most people have obtained wellness care from a physician or other specialist attached to the National Health Service (NHS), a government-controlled and government-funded health care system. Although in the 1980s and early on 1990s at that place were attempts to introduce market-driven principles into the NHS, and the number of privately insured inhabitants has risen; the NHS retains the principles of costless services at the indicate of delivery, and the current Labour government has rescinded many of the measures intended to manage healthcare by market place principles.
Near people believe in an arroyo to medicine that focuses on particular problems and illnesses as opposed to overall health. In this type of medicine a patient sees a medical specialist when a health complaint arises. The doctor diagnoses the problem on the ground of the patient's concrete symptoms and either prescribes a treatment or sends the patient to a more specialized doctor. In contempo years, a very unlike set of approaches to medicine and health (complementary medicine) has been informed by non-Western traditions such as traditional Chinese medicine and nonstandard approaches such as herbal lore. Rather than trying to cure a specific ailment, practitioners of complementary medicine endeavour to restore the well-being of the patient's unabridged listen and torso, ofttimes by tapping the body's capacities to heal itself. Examples of complementary medicine are acupuncture, herbal medicine, massage therapy, and healing touch on.
Secular Celebrations
New year's Eve and Twenty-four hour period (31 December, 1 Jan), celebrate the outset of the new year's day. April Fool'southward Day (1 April), is a day on which people play practical jokes on ane another. The sovereign'south birthday is celebrated in June. Guy Fawkes'due south Day (five Nov) commemorates the foiling of a 1605 Catholic plot to blow upward the houses of Parliament and is an occasion for fireworks and revelry. Remembrance Day (xi November) celebrates the contributions of war veterans to defending the freedom of the nation.
The Arts and Humanities
Back up for the Arts. In addition to artists' earnings, support for the arts derives from the regime, chiefly through the Arts Council and business and private philanthropic sources.
Literature. The elaboration of an expressly English literature began in the medieval flow with Geoffrey Chaucer and connected into the Renaissance and then into the Restoration with William Shakespeare, John Milton, and John Dryden. During those periods, drama and poetry were the major literary forms, with pop literature shading into song, cartoons, and storytelling.
The eighteenth century is notable for the emergence of new literary forms such as the novel, the true offense tale, light opera, magazines, and new oral traditions associated with England's port districts. Regionalized music and storytelling from this era still provide the foundation for much currently performed folk music in England.
The nineteenth century is the age of the Romantics and the Victorians. Artists in both movements were social realists, with the Romantics known for recovering older forms and the Victorians known for highly elaborate language. Popular literature offered the penny dreadful and a profusion of magazines that published novels and other literary work serially. New oral traditions sprang up around labor protest movements such every bit those of the Luddites and Chartists.
In the twentieth century, writers born in England shared the stage with Commonwealth writers such as Derek Walcott, V.S. Naipaul, and Nadine Gordimer and with other non-English writers such as James Joyce, Dylan Thomas, and Alice Walker. The twentieth century also saw the continuance of the miracle of Anglicized émigré writers such equally T. South. Eliot. Edwardians such as Due east. M. Forster and moderns such equally D. H. Lawrence and Virginia Woolf dominated the menstruation 1900–1950. Edwardians extended Victorian approaches, and moderns worked in older forms such as the novel and helped develop the short story.
Since World War 2, the efforts of writers to stretch the bounds of genres expanded. Poetry is at present performed in the form of hip-hop music or at verse slams, while written poetry may be rooted in jazz and has lost prominence. Drama has flourished, as have filmed versions of classic and contemporary works. Novels focus on the everyday and the autobiographical, a reflection in part of women's influence on literature.
Graphic Arts. Virtually training of graphic artists is provided by universities and art colleges. Fine art has been incorporated into the school curriculum as part of the nation'southward educational policy, and all English language students receive some training in and exposure to the graphic arts. In 1997 and 1998, 22 percent of the population over age 15 visited a gallery, museum, or other major collection, a figure that has shown petty change since the late 1980s. Whether museums are egalitarian in terms of affordability and relevance, notwithstanding, is debatable. The National Disability Arts Forum and similar organizations are funded by the Arts Council of England and ameliorate access to the arts and grooming in the arts for the disabled population; the Arts Quango promotes cultural diversity as well.
Functioning Arts. The Royal Shakespeare Company and musical productions in London'south Westward End are well attended. Musical productions range from orchestras such as the London Philharmonic to jazz, stone, and folk music. Dance forms range from classical ballet to free-form club dancing. Ticket prices limit attendance at aristocracy forms of operation art, although statistics evidence that in the final decade their audition has not decreased in size.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
England supports research and pedagogy in all areas of science and the social sciences. The regime funds near scientific and social scientific research. Larger private corporations and private foundations are also major players. The research sector develops applications for basic primary enquiry in a range of fields. With a long tradition of empirical inquiry, English language scholars take often been agile in engineering science.
Bibliography
Allan, Graham. Kinship and Friendship in Modernistic U.k., 1996.
Blackness, Jeremy. A History of the British Isles, 1997.
Bruce, Steve. Religion in Modernistic Britain, 1995.
Buchanan, Ann. "The Background." In Ann Buchanan and Barbara L. Hudson, eds., Parenting, Schooling and Children'due south Behavior, 1998.
Burnett, John. Idle Hands: The Experience of Unemployment, 1790–1990, 1994.
Cannadine, David. The Ascension and Fall of Form in Britain, 1999.
Charlesworth, Simon J. A Phenomenology of Working Class Experience, 2000.
Christopher, David. British Culture: An Introduction, 1999.
The Countryside Agency. State of the Countryside 2000, April 2000.
Crawford, Adam. The Local Governance of Crime: Appeals to Community and Partnerships, 1997.
Darien-Smith, Eve. Bridging Divides: The Channel Tunnel and English Legal Identity in the New Europe, 1999.
Easthope, Anthony. Englishness and National Culture, 1999.
Fowler, Jeanane. Hinduism: Behavior and Practices, 1997.
Gillis, John. A World of Their Own Making: Myth, Ritual and the Quest for Family Values, 1996.
Goldthorpe, J.E. Family Life in Western Societies: A Historical Folklore of Family Relationships in Britain and Due north America, 1987.
Hakim, Catherine. Social Change and Innovation in the Labour Marketplace: Show from the Census SARs on Occupational Segregation and Labour Mobility, Part-Time Piece of work and Student Jobs, Homework and Cocky-Employment, 1998.
Hall, Peter, and Colin Ward. Sociable Cities: The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, 1998.
Harper, Timothy. Passport Uk: Your Pocket Guide to British Business, Customs & Etiquette, 1997.
Harvey, Graham, and Charlotte Hardman, eds. Paganism Today: Wiccans, Druids, the Goddess and Ancient Earth Traditions for the Twenty-First Century, 1995.
Heyck, Thomas William. The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1870 to Present, 1992.
Hirschel, David J., and William Wakefield. Criminal Justice in England and the United States, 1995.
Hoggart, Richard. Townscape with Figures: Farnham: Portrait of an English Town, 1994.
Kalsi, Sewa Singh. Simple Guide to Sikhism, 1999.
Lehmberg, Stanford East. The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from Prehistoric Times to 1688, 1992.
Lewis, Jane. Women in Britain since 1945: Women, Family, Work and the State in the Postal service-War Years, 1992.
Marwick, Arthur. British Club Since 1945, 1996.
——. A History of the Modern British Isles, 1914-1999, 2000.
McRae, Susan. "Introduction: Family unit and Household Change in Uk." In Susan McRae, ed., Changing U.k.: Families and Households in the 1990s, 1999.
Mennell, Stephen. All Manners of Nutrient: Eating and Taste in England and France from the Centre Ages to the Present, 1996.
Newman, Gerald. The Rising of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740–1830, 1997.
Office for National Statistics. U.k. 2000: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom, 2000.
Rock, Paul. Helping Victims of Crime: The Home Part and the Ascension of Victim Support in England and Wales, 1990.
Samuel, Raphael. Theatres of Retention: Volume I, By and Present in Contemporary Civilization, 1994.
Strathern, Marilyn. Afterwards Nature: English Kinship in the Late Twentieth Century, 1992.
Web Sites
BBC News Online. "That Spiritual Affect," http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_431000/431013.stm , 26 August 1999
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Nutrient. "England Rural Development Programme, 2000-2006," http://www.maff.gov.uk/erdp/docs/national/programmecontentshome.htm , October 2000
National Statistics. http://world wide web.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/2001
—D OUGLAS C ATTERALL
0 Response to "What New England Colony Has the Most Fashion Sense"
Post a Comment